REVIEW
OF RELATED LITERATURE
This
chapter is to describes in detail review of
Definition of Reading, Different
Kinds of Reading, Reason of a Reading, Reading Skills, Hints to develop reading skills, Reading
Comprehension, The Strategies in Reading, The
problem of Reading, Definition of Series of Picture, Advantages and
Disadvantages Use of Series of Picture in Teaching Reading, The Using Media
Series of Picture in Teaching Reading, Reading for information, Equipment in
Classroom, Testing Reading by Using Series of Picture, Theoretical Framework.
A.
Definition of reading
Reading
is one of four language skill that should be taught to the student learners,
many states about definition of reading to learner. Muhammad Ali Alkuli ( 1976
) states that :
“Reading is one major skill
involved in language learning,and he say that there are many kind of methods of teaching reading. There are four
main method for teaching reading to beginners.
In generally, the purpose
of reading is classified in (a) Reading
for information. Some may
read aiming at gaining
more general or specific knowledge; (b) Reading
for research. Some may read in order to review specialized literature
related to a certain problem they
intend to do
a research on ; (c) Reading for summarizing.
Some may read a text to write a
summary or a report on that text ; (d) Reading
for test. Students often read in
preparation for test; (e) Reading for
enjoyment. We sometime read
to collect information, do a research,
summarize a text or get
ready for a tests. We sometimes read
for the sake
of enjoyment may occur when we
read a story
or poem (Alkhuli 1976 : 71 )”.
The
other word, “Reading atau membaca adalah memahami apa yang di kemukakan orang
lain melalui tulisan”. (Fahruz Zaman, Azis Nurkholis, and Wiharto. (2006: 239).
“Reading is to process text meaning through some process of interaction with
print”. (Alderson, 2000: 1)
In line with
that, reading is also defined as aprocess of understanding
written texts. It is a complex activity that involves bothperception and
thought. Reading consists of two related processes: wordrecognition and
comprehension. Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written
symbols correspond to one‘s spoken language. It is also stated that word
recognition is a process of accessing and recognizing individual words (Lems,
Miller, and Soro, 2010: 65). Meanwhile, comprehension is the process of making
sense of words, sentences and connected grammatical knowledge, experience with
text and other strategies to help them understand written text (Pang, Muaka,
Bernhardt, at al, 2011: 6). Comprehension is also a constructive process in
which student creates meaning based on their background knowledge (Gunning,
2010: 1). Reading becomes an involving
between a text and a reader‘s background knowledge. (Lems, Miller, and Soro, 2010: 170).
Meanwhile,
Nunan (2003: 68) sates that ;
“Reading is a fluent process ofreaders combining
information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning.
The goal of reading is comprehension. The act of reading combines a text,
reader, fluency, and strategies”.
B.
Different
kinds of reading
Reading
is one of four language skill that should be taught to the student learners,
many kind of reading to learner. Jeremy harmer (2002:99) states that there are
two different kind of reading there are extensive
and intensive reading.
The term extensive reading refers
to reading which students do often (but not exclusively) away from the
classroom. They may read novels, web pages, newspapers, magazines or any other
reference material. Where possible, extensive reading should involve reading for pleasure -what Richard Day
calls joyful reading. This is
enhanced if students have a chance to choose what they want to read, if they
are encouraged to read by the teacher, and if sorne opportunity is given for
them to share their reading experiences. Although not al1 students are equaliy
keen on this kind of reading, we can saywith certainty that the ones who read
most progress fastest.The term intensive
reading, on the other hand, refers to the detailed focus on the
construction of reading texts which takes place usual1y (but not always) in
classrooms.Intensive reading is usually accompanied by study activities We may
ask students to work out what kind of text they are reading, tease out details
of meaning, look at particular uses of grammar and vocabulary, and then use the
information in the text to move on to other learning activities. We will also
encourage them to ref1ect on different reading skills.
C.
Reason for a
reading
Every text and every reader require
different treatment for a reading development programme. Writer might try
some points according to Christine:
a. To
enable students: the teacher can only try to promote an ability in the
students.
b. To enjoy (or
least feel comfortable with): a great deal of this book is about the hard work
of reading.
c. To read
without help: we can seldom expect hl pith the reading tests we undertake in real life outside the classroom.
d. Unfamiliar
texts; being able to read he texts studied in class is not enough; part of the
work f extracting the message was done by the teacher or fellow students.
e. Authentic texts: the reading skill is of no
practical use unless it enables us to read texts we actually require for some
real-life purpose.
f. Appropriate
speed: a flexible reading style s the sign of a competent reader.
g. Silently: we
have already no people seldom need to read aloud except in the classroom.
h. With
adequate understanding: it may cause surprise that I do not say “with total
understanding”.
D.
Reading skills
The
following are specific skills involved in reading according to Heaton (1991:
105).
1)
Recognise words
and word groups, associating sounds with their corresponding graphic symbols;
2)
Deduce the
meaning of words by
a.
Understanding
word formation (roots, affixation, derivation, and compounding);
b.
Contextual clues
(e.g. One of the members of the group exposed the plot, and the police were
soon able to arrest the leaders.);
3)
Understand
explicitly stated information (e.g. I wish Ann had come. = Ann did not come –
hence my wish.);
4)
Understand
relations within the sentence, especially elements of sentence structure,
negation, fronting and theme, complex embedding
5)
Understand
relations between parts of a text through both lecical devices (e.g repetition,
synonyms, antithesis) and grammatical cohesive devices, especially anaphoric
and cataphoric reference (e.g. he, they, it, the former, the latter) and
connectives (e.g since, after, because, although, however, in addition);
6)
Perceive
temporal and spatial relationships, and also sequences of ideas;
7)
Understand
conceptial meaning, especially
a.
Quantity and
amount
b.
Definiteness and
indefiniteness
c.
Comparison and
degree
d.
Means and
instrument
e.
Cause, result,
purpose, reason, condition, addition, contrast, concession;
8)
Anticipate and
predict what will come next in the text;
9)
Identify the
main idea and other salient features in a text;
10)
Generalise and
draw conclusions;
11)
Understand
information not explicitly stated by making inferences (i.e. reading between
the lines) and understanding figurative language;
12)
Skim and scan
(looking for the general meaning and reading for spedific information);
13)
Read critically;
14)
Adopt a flexible
approach and vary reading strategies according to the type of material being
read and the purpose for which it is being read.
E.
Hints to
Develop Reading Skills
Reading is Data indicated by an
instrument. Teach the students to concentrate on the text and
not on the sentence. If reading comprehension is to be achieve, the structure
of long units such as the paragraph or the whole text must be understood. Start
with global understanding and move towards detailed understanding rather than
working the other way around, use authentic text whenever possible. The
authentic text does not make learning more difficult. The difficulty depends on
the activity which is required on the students rather than on the text itself.
In other words, the teacher should grade exercises rather than texts. Link the
different activities through the different activities chosen. Focus on reading
skills and learning strategies and plan comprehension exercises for each of
them. Do not impose your own interpretation on the learners.
Teach them to think by providing
enough evidences for them to follow the right way. Do not impose an exercise on
the text. It is better to allow the text to suggest what exercises are more
appropriate to it. Do not use so many exercises that you might spoil the
pleasure of reading. Help the students to time themselves and increase their
reading speed, little, by little. Use variety of procedures when controlling
the student’s reading activities. Self-correcting exercises are extremely
useful.
F.
Reading
Comprehension
Related
to reading comprehension, Richards and Schmidt (2002: 443) states that “Reading
is an activity of perceiving a written text in order to understand its contents”.
This can be done silently (silent reading). The understanding that results is
called reading comprehension. Lems, Miller, and Soro (2010: 170) states that “Reading
comprehension ability is the ability to construct meaning from a given written
text”. Reading comprehension is not a static competency; it varies according to
the purpose for reading and the text that is involved.
Other
reading experts, Alderson (2000: 1) states that “Reading comprehension is to
process text meaning through some processes of interaction with print”. Not
only looking at the print, the reader also deciding what they mean and how they
relate to each other. Current research views reading comprehension as dynamic
process in which the reader "constructs" meaning based on information
that a reader gathers from a text. It is also stated by Sweet and Snow (2003:
1) states that “Reading comprehension is the process of simultaneously
extracting and constructing meaning”. In
other words, readers recognize both challenges: figuring out how print
represents words and engaging in the translation of print to sound accurately
and efficiently (extracting), and at the same time formulating a representation
of the information being presented, which inevitably requires building new
meanings and integrating new with old information (constructing meaning).
A
reading expert, Katherine Maria in Arieta (2005: 2) defines reading comprehension
as:
“...holistic
process of constructing meaning from written text through the interaction
of :
1)
The knowledge
the reader brings to the text, i.e., word recognition ability, world knowledge,
and knowledge of linguistic conventions;
2)
The reader's
interpretation of the language that the writer used in constructing the text;
and
3)
The situation in
which the text is read, ...”
Beside
the other hand, Fahrus Zaman, Azis
Nurkholis and Wiharto (2008: 239-240) states that;
“Reading atau membaca adalah memahami apa yang di kemukakan
orang lain melalui tulisan, memehami konsep dasar membaca ini mempunyai arti
yang sangat luas karena hal ini tentu akan disesuaikan dengan maksud/tujuan
membaca tersebut, misalnya ; a) membaca untuk memperoleh pengetahuan ; b)
membaca untuk hiburan ; c) membaca untuk memahami kehendak si penulis. Selain
dari maksud membaca tersebut, mebaca dibagi pula berdasarkan caranya, seperti ;
1) membaca keras (reading loudly) ; 2) membaca
di dalam hati (raedig silently).”
Based on
some definitions above, it can be inferred that reading comprehension is a
process of constructing a meaning from a written text that involves the
interaction of the the reader‘s prior knowledge with the new given information.
G.
The
Strategies in Reading
In order to
help students their comprehension of reading and increase their reading ability
students have to use some skill and strategies. It will define the difference
between reading skills and reading strategies, and illustrate before, during,
and after reading strategies.
A reading
skill is a helpful tool that a student practices in order to improve reading. Teachers
teach various skills to improve the understanding of reading. Unfortunately,
many of the students while decoding do not comprehend what they are reading. On
the other hand, a reading strategy is a plan or way of
doing something; a specific procedure one uses to perform skill-defined
strategies as behaviours’ and thoughts that a learner engages in during
learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process. They
asserted that strategies are mandatory for academic development.
Students today have difficulty
getting through a short reading assignment, such as a newspaper article. This
difficulty is associated with the lack of ability to focus and concentrate on
written words. Due to this, many students need guidance and strategies to help
focus on reading and to do more than just read the words on a piece of paper.
The skills of a strategic reader in the content areas can be broken down into
seven areas.
a.
Predict –
declaring in advance to foretell based on observation or experience. “Prediction
is the act of predicting. Something foretold or predicted; a prophecy”.
b.
Visualize –
forming mental pictures of scenes, characters and events.
c.
Connect – to
link two things together or to associate and see a relationship.
d.
Question
– to inquire or examine.
e.
Clarify – to
make understandable or to become clear and free of confusion.
f.
Summarize –
to concisely obtain the essence or main point of the text.
g.
Evaluate –
to form an opinion about what you have read.
According to Dr. Nana Sudjana and
Drs. Ahmad Rivai (2011 :70) ;
“... gambar fotografi secara luas bisa
diperoleh dari berbagai sumber, misalnya surat-surat kabar, majalah-majalah,
brosur-brosur dan buku-buku. Gambar, lukisan,
ilustrasi, foto yang diperoleh dari berbagai sumber tersebut dapat
digunakan oleh guru secara efektif dalam kegiatan belajar-mengajar, dalam setiap
jenjang pendidikan dan berbagai disiplin ilmu.”
H.
The Problems of Reading
Some of the
problems involved with characters are difficult to read. Small size or
blurriness or distortions or other problems, might be solve by looking at more
than one image. From pictures that are slightly offset from each other: For
example, a high speed camera taking images as a machine e.g., a motorized
vehicle can traverse a street perpendicular to the target structures. “The high
speed camera can therefore capture a sequence of images slightly offset from
each previous image according to the motion of the camera”. by having multiple
versions of a candidate text region. The resolution of the candidate text
region can be improve using the super resolution process. Additionally, a
candidate text region partially obstructed from one camera position. It
obstructed text from a different camera position (e.g., text partially obscured
by a tree branch from one camera position may be clear from another). While the
text recognition part of this process will try to use variations of character
recognition. They may also try to find certain specific business names are keep
in a database, such as McDonalds, Fry’s Electronics, H&R Block, and Pizza
Hut. They could also try to find text from images at certain locations by
looking at information from places like Yellow Pages listings.
The search
engine might use some Specific Applications Under this Process Where this gets
interesting is in the descriptions of some of the ways text recognition and
extraction from images, including the use of robots within stores and museums.
The text take from images can be index and associate with the image. That can
then be use in different search result applications like image search, and
mapping, or other applications. Images are Associated with a Mapping Program
Extracted text from street scene images can be indexed and associated with a
mapping application. People can then search for a location by business name,
address, store hours, or other keywords. The mapping application can also
retrieve images matching the user’s search like looking for a McDonald’s in a
particular city or near a particular address the mapping program would create a
map showing the location of the McDonald’s as well as a picture of the
restaurant.
Images Near
Specific Locations are Associated with Each Other Since the images are
associated with location data, the mapping program can provide images of other
businesses near a searched location, and show their locations on a map.
Images of Similar Businesses Presented as Alternatives Images of
businesses that offer similar goods or services may be present to the searcher
as alternatives. “Therefore, a search for McDonalds might show other nearby
fast food joints Text is: The original words of something written or
printed, as opposed to a paraphrase, translation, revision, or condensation.
Advertisements Shown with Images. Advertisements can be presented along with
images”.
When
a business is show in an image, an ad for the business may also be show. On the
other hand, ads for alternative business could be display. In addition, ads can
be show for products associated with the business. Google Interior Images –
While this patent filing describes many images from street scenes, this
indexing can be apply to other image sets. One of the more interesting sections
of this patent application: In one implementation, a store (e.g., a grocery
store or hardware store) is indene. Images of items within the store are
capture, for example, using a small-motorized vehicle or robot. The aisles of
the store are traverse and images of products are capture in a similar manner
as discussed above. Additionally, as discussed above, location
information is associated with each image. Text is extracts from the product
images. In particular, extracted text can be filter using a product name database
in order to focus character recognition results on product names.
Many
museums include text displays associated with exhibits, artefacts’, and
objects. Images of museum items and the associated text displays can be capture
using a process like that involved in indexing a store. Location information
can be associated with each captured image. Museums can be search or browse to
learn about the various objects.
I.
Definition
of series of picture
Series of picture according Wright
(1989 citied in cahyono 2009) are pictures which show some actions or event in
a chronological order. The picture usually tend to range from four to eight.
The use series of picture is one succsessful way to motivate students in
Learning English Reading. It is an interesting way for the student, Teaching
Reading by using series of picture provide motivation for studen read, series
of picture can motivate the students. Pictures not only provide the students
with basic material for composition, but also stimulate their imaginative power
so that they will have a concept in their mind about what they are going to
read.
J.
Advantages
and Disadvantages using Series of Picture in Teaching Reading
1.
Advantages
using series of picture
Pictures are one kind of media that
can help the teacher draw the students’ interest and arouse their motivation to
learn. If the students are motivated, they will participate actively and will
learn hard during the teaching-learning process, there are the advantages using
sries of picture can be formulated as follows;
a. The
students easily the story because there are pictures that will guide them step
by step to make a full story.
b. The
students will feel enjoy in reading the story as they feel that they are
playing with the pictures. Teaching by using series picture increase motivation
and interesting for student to read.
c. Series
picture develop and stimulate students creative and imaginative in reading.
d. Students
can develop their based on series picture they have seen and read it with own
language.
e. Series
pictures can enrich students vocabulary.
f. The
use of series picture as media to increase students vocabulary is needed. By
using series picture, student learner how to use their new vocabulary in
reading text.
2.
Disadvantages
using series of picture.
On the other hand, there are
negative sides in teaching reading by using series picture there are;
a. Students
which have lack of vocabulary will find difficulty to compose the story.
Because composing is hard work, even when you are doing it in your own
language. First, we have to get the ideas, then have express them in away that
rally communicates with our readers.
b. The
teacher wii difficult to consider the time to show aech picter, it depend on
the students’ ability, need much time connect with distribution and the
students’ ability in composing description text.
c. The
class will be noise if the teacher can not manage the class well
K.
The Using Media Series of Picture in Teaching Reading
Pictures is
a visual representation of something, such as a person or scene, produced on a surface,
painting,
With chapter books, have
students make predictions at the start of each chapter so that their
predictions draw from the chapters . Have students make predictions based on
other books they have read by the same author or other books they have read in
the same genre. After reading, discuss and any information that helped
verify or caused them to revise their predictions. Reading is
an interaction between reader and material. As it is stated, reading
requires a rich background, and some ability to comprehend the texts.
Pictures as
Media Picture is one of the visual media that can be used in language teaching.
It means that picture can also be used for teaching writing since language
teaching should cover four skills. They are listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. It can also be used to create a situation for writing classes clearly.
One kind is that which tells us a simple and obvious story.
Harmer
(2001:134) states that ;
“
teachers
have always used pictures or graphics, whether drawn, taken from books,
newspapers and magazines, or photographs to facilitate learning pictures are
clearly indispensable for the language teacher since they can be used in so
many ways. We can teach vocabulary; speaking and writing easily through
pictures (we mean blackboard drawing, wall pictures, charts and flash cards)”.
One kind of
pictures that can be used as media in teaching-learning process is still
picture. Still pictures are ordinary pictures. According to Gerlach and Ely
(1980:273-308), one of them is opaque still pictures.
The
definition of opaque still pictures stated by Gerlach and Ely (1980:273-283) is
as a visual representation of person, place or thing which is two dimensional
photographic prints are most common, but sketches, cartoons, murals, cut-outs,
charts, graphs, and maps are widely used. Pictures may use for individual
study, for display on bulletin boards and felt boards, in exhibits, and for
projection when groups of students need to look at one picture at the same
time.
It is very
important for the teachers to select suitable pictures in teaching and learning
process. The pictures are going to be used to see the students’ reactions
especially in improving their writing ability. Teacher can know about how far
the students’ can improve their idea in making sentences and simple paragraph.
Based on
practicality and economy reasons in using pictures in teaching and learning
process, I prepared some materials as the substitutes for the real things. I chose cut-out pictures in conducting this
experiment. It is used as the representation of things that will be presented.
Media can
form a variable point of departure for achieving lesson objectives in mind can
often help to economize the teaching task. This is achieved in the sense that
the media appeal to students, senses and help them process information thus
reinforcing the teaching point and saving the teacher unnecessary explanation. According to Marianne “Language
skills are not isolated entities and that as language teachers we need to build
bridges between skills”. We can do
so by creating a unified context in which the teaching of various skills is
effectively integrated around media.
Reading is
related to language and it requires being efficient in L2. In addition, good
readers have to do some other jobs in order to comprehend a text: they should
connect new text with experiences they mean background knowledge-, interpret,
evaluate, synthesize, and consider alternative interpretations. While doing
this task, students need also some strategies to help them make their reading
comprehension easy.
Dealing with
the topic above, students asked to write a story using what appears in the
given pictures. It gave the students an opportunity to write in using some
patterns they have learnt. It is a small early step to express the students’ ideas and taught freely.
L.
Reading
for Information
In teaching reaeding we know that
for reading text well reader must know information spesifik in text such as look for main idea.
Otong setiawan djuharie (2008 :35-36
) states that ;
“... Dalam teks dengan satu
paragraf, kita menggabungkan seluruh kalimat untuk mencari pikiran utama. Dalam
bacaan yang lebih panjang , kita menggabungkan gagasan utama dari berbagai
paragraf untuk mengetahui pikiran utama dan informasi dari keseluruhan
teks,untuk mengetahui fakta-fakta dan informasi detail secara optimal, kita
harus mampu; (a) menemukan fakta-fakta dan mengingatnya ; (b) memilih fakta dan
detail mayor dari yang minor; (c) carilah dalam kelopok atau unit, fakta sering
muncul bersamaan bersamaan dalam rumpun; (d) belajarlah
untuk memilih opini penulis dari fakta yang disodorkan dalam tulisan; (e)
gunakan 5 W (who, what, where, when, why) saat kita membaca untuk bertanya
kepada diri sendiri...”.
Based on the statment above that in look for information the logical paragraph
on text contains only one idea, that is the main idea and this idea is
developed by giving several supporting details. In other words, paragraph has
two types of sentences namely topic sentence and supporting sentences.
M.
Equipment in
the Classroom
Even in an
increasingly technological age, there is still good value from pictures of all
shapes and sizes.
Nana Sudjana and Ahmad Rivai (2011 :70) states that “Pictures
can come from a variety of sources: drawing, magazines, professionally published
material, postcards, photographs etc”. Teachers can use pictures as prompts for
controlled language work. It alternative to holding up objects for like pens as
aids for speaking activities or writing tasks, as a focus for description and
discussion (teasing, meaning out of a painting, for example) and as visual aids
for language structure. The things to watch out for with pictures is that they
are durable if they are on cards, for example, the cards should be tough and be
properly covered with some kind of laminate so that they can be re-used.
They should look good there is nothing worse than a tatty torn picture from an
old magazine and they should be big enough and visible enough for the students
to see.
N.
Testing Reading by Using Series of
Picture
On a few
language courses, efficient reading skills have been push into the background
in an attempt to develop oral fluency skills. Attempts at dealing with the many
complex reading skills frequently come too late, at the tertiary level (i.e. at
university, technical college), when students suddenly find themselves
confronted with professional and technical literature in the foreign language.
Heaton
states that “Before
reading tests in the second or foreign language can be successfully constructed,
the first language reading skills of the students must be ascertained”. Clearly
there is often little purpose in testing in the second language those basic
reading skills which the students have not yet developed in their own language.
However, the more fact that a student has mastered some of required reading
skills in the first language is no guarantee at all that he or she will be able
to transfer those skills to reading another language.
O.
Theoretical Framework
With predicting information, we can know that what extent of
the competence of the students in reading though picture. The students are more
likely to read though picture because we can see directly and interesting. The
advantages in using prediction are the students can self study and the teacher
does not really busy in teaching learning process. And also the students are
more active. Therefore the principle at school based curriculum competence
can actually. With give picture, students can make predictions. Prediction
picture helps students more easily to understand. But the teacher must control
them because some of students do not like it. Method which the teacher uses in
teaching learning must increase comprehension students.
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